GEOL 2051:Geological Processes and Evolutionary History Assessment Answer

Part A

Describe The Conditions Necessary For The Formation Of A Foreland Basin

Foreland basins are developed when giant masses formed by the thickening of crustal oriented with mountainous evolution stretch the lithosphere via a procedure known as lithosphere bending. The Foreland basins' depth and width are characterized by the underlying lithosphere's bending stiffness and the volcanic belt's features. Basically, foreland basins develop due to the downward bends of the crust as it evolves and adding huge mass to the crust of the Earth as it evolves. This occurs so that the weight of the mountain can balance off by the equilibrium in the flex of the frontal budge. In addition, the plate tectonics' evolution in the outer foreland basins includes three crucial stages which are the stage of passive marginal, early convergence and late convergence (Academic Accelerator 2020).

Describe the Sedimentary Features in the Photograph Below and Explain What They Tell Us About the Depositional Environment of These Sediments

An environment that is depositional is explained as a location where sediments are accumulated and governed by chemical, biological and physical processes that are related to ancient and modern environments as well as lithified into units of sedimentary rock. Features mainly in the sediment called structures of sedimentary that emerge when it begins to be deposited. Typically, these features give clues regarding the sedimentary context. Sometimes, evident patterns majorly in the bedding or sedimentary or distinctive characteristics within the sediment might be utilized to recognize the formations of sedimentary (Hauptvogel & Sisson 2022).

Both Glaciers and Debris Flows Can Deposit Diamictons (Poorly-sorted Deposits Ranging From Clay to Boulders). What Would You Look for to Distinguish These Two Types of Deposits?

Debris flow is also known as mudslides, while glacier flows are called rivers of ice. Glaciers flow mainly moves by underlying rock or gravel debris or sliding over bedrock, while debris flow moves in pulses. Every prior debris flow or pulse develops flows from leaves mainly that channel the main flow until the levees are stopped. Three types of debris flows are there which include mixed type, sand-rich and mud-rich. On the other hand, two types of glaciers are there which are fluvial & outwash sediments and glacial till (Berzi 2021).

An Outcrop of Glacial Lake Sediments is Shown in Figure 6-12 (D) on Page 120 Of your Textbook. How Does the Sedimentary Texture, Structure and Origin of This Deposit Differ From That of Glacial Till

The glacier lake originates mainly from a glacier, on the other hand, glacier till is a type of sediment that is specifically deposited by glaciers. The total quantity of sediment found in glacial lakes mainly is subjective and also has a typical stratigraphic sequence of sands, silty clays, glacial clays and organic muds which are based on formation time. Also, over the period the sediments of the glacial lake are prone to shift. The sediments which are generated by glacial grinding are very unique. It includes different sizes of sediments.

What Are Some of the Processes That Have Led to the Growth of the Total Area of Continents Over the Course of Earth’s History?

Currently, tectonic plates are gently shifting over the surface of the Earth like they have been doing for the past billions of years. Geologists state that the collision of the tectonic plates is what leads to the formation of continents. The growth or evolution of the continents is because of tectonic shifts or the movement called plate motion. In addition, continents evolve when the latest crust joins at the zones of subduction, it is the place where a tectonic plate mainly sinks back into the Earth's mantle or subducts (Oskin 2014). The growth of the continent is also known as Accretion. It is caused normally due to the oceanic plates' subduction under a continental plate specifically on which arcs are developed with forearc accretionary complexes. Vertical continental expansion is the process via which arcs are developed of substantial quantities of plutonic and volcanic materials which considerably thicken the crust of continental.

Briefly Describe the Process of Endosymbiosis and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

Endosymbiosis is a symbiotic interaction in which one species lives inside another species. The expression "primary endosymbiosis" represents the initial time of prehistoric eukaryotic cell-infused prokaryotes which give birth to the chloroplasts and mitochondria. They are enclosed y two membranes. In addition, the exterior membrane of "chloroplast" or "mitochondria" is created from the host-cell membrane, while the inner membrane originates from the bacterial progenitor (NAU 2022). 

The earliest eukaryotes emerged from ancient prokaryotes through a pathway that contains the proliferation of membranes, the breakdown of a cellular wall, the cytoskeleton development and the evolution and acquisition of organelles. Eukaryotes evolved at the time of the proterozoic eon around 1.6 BYA. Every living thing on the plant was prokaryotic until eukaryotes appeared. The theory of endosymbiotic states that the development of eukaryotes leads to a result of an amalgamation of Achaean cells mainly with bacteria where primordial Archaean engulfed an aerobic and ancient bacterial cell. The development of eukaryotes happened between 1.6 to 2.2 billion years ago. The dependents of this primordial engulfed cell are included today in every eukaryotic cell known as mitochondria.

In General Terms, Describe the Process of Formation and Destruction of Supercontinents

Supercontinents appear to develop by the processes of two end-members which are introversion and extroversion. In extroversion, the ocean lithosphere that surrounds the exterior ocean or supercontinent is preferably collapsed like in the instance of Pannotia. On the other hand, in introversion, the lithosphere of the ocean developed between spreading pieces of the Interior Ocean or previous supercontinent mainly shown up to be the processes of a two-end member by which the supercontinent develops. It is preferably subducted as Pangea (Murphy & Nance 2013). 

Li (2014) states that supercontinents have in-built obsolescence in that it insulates the mantel and this leads to the highs geoids and generation of thermal upwellings that further lead to the breakup of supercontinents. Other than that, the breakup of supercontinents has been connected to superplume or plume events or/and thermal insulation of supercontinents but the correct mechanism still remains to be driven. The adverse impact of the breakup of supercontinents includes a long-term rise of sea levels, a change of climate because of the sudden changes in the carbon cycle and circulation pattern of the ocean and bio-diversification (Li 2014).

Explain the Advantages of Cladistics Over Traditional Techniques for Classification of Organisms

Cladistics is very useful for developing classifications of systems. Along with this, it is the most commonly utilized process for the classification of organisms. It has the ability to forecast organisms' properties and assist to elucidate evolution mechanisms. It develops hypotheses regarding the organisms' relationships in a specific method that, unlike other types of systems organisms' properties. This can be essential in circumstances when specific biological compounds or genes are being sought. Apart from that, it is more practical as compared to the traditional one when attempting to identify evolutionary relationships among organisms. As cladistics is based on evolutionary relationships and utilizes branch points mainly in cladograms to recognize the last similar species groups’ ancestor (Berkeley 2021). 

Part B

In the year 1946, renowned scientist name Reginald Sprigg discovered the imprints of fossils in rocks so specifically in the Flinders Ranges at the old minefield of Ediacara. In addition, this discovery signified the initial period in the long existence of Earth that the fossilized remains of a whole coming of animals that have soft-bodied have been founded in such enormous quantities. Aspidella terranovica was the first Ediacara fossil that was founded or discovered in the year 1868. This fossil was discovered by a Scottish geologist name Alexander Murray. He found them beneficial for correlating the rock's age around Newfoundland. In the year 1995, a varied community of Eradicaran was founded in Sonora, Mexico. Also, the age was around 555 million years and is roughly concurrent with fossils from the Hills of Ediacara in the White Sea on Russia's coast and South Australia (Brian Frederick Windley 2018).

Ediacara biota is also known as Ediacara fauna. It is a distinct assemblage of organisms that are soft-bodied and worldwide preserved as impressions of fossils in sandstone mainly from the period of Ediacaran which is around 635 to 541 million years ago. Some scientists stated that Ediacara biotas were the initial metazoans that needed atmospheric oxygen mainly for their evolution. The Ediacara fauna primacy as a crucial stage in the growth of metazoan has been exacerbated by the discoveries of fossils that predate the start of the period of Ediacaran (Brian Frederick Windley 2018).

During the period of Ediacaran, a wide range of organisms existed including Sponges, Arthropods, Nemiana, Ventogyrus, Skinnera and Solza margarita. The impressions of Ediacara were derived from organisms that have soft bodies like modern-day sea pens, jellyfish, soft corals, lichen and annelid worms. The three modern phyla are majorly accepted by renowned scientists and stated that they existed in the period of Ediacaran. Apart from that, the substantial reason is there to believe that Annelida, Mollusca, Echinodermata and Arthropoda were represented also in this category. The Ediacara biota includes organisms or creatures that have been connected to the Phylum Porifera, Phylum Arthropoda and Phylum Cnidaria. Phylum Porifera are sponge-like creatures that are also known as aquatic invertebrates. They do not have any true organs or tissues and are not preserved usually in the record of fossils. In addition, they primarily live in oceans or marine environments and link themselves to the floor of the sea. Phylum Cnidaria contains corals, sea anemones and jellies. They have multi cells and are also known as multi-cellular creatures. They have the ability to move on their own but they do not have any skeletons (kpanchuk 2022).

Part C

Part D

Part E

Lake Ontario

Location Map

Photograph of Lake Ontario

Description of Likely Source Area of Sediments

Along the eastern shoreline of Lake Ontario, the most common type of sediment is sand. Water easily dissolves eroded upland dunes' sand. Sand is carried back onto the dunes by prevailing westerly winds during low water. The sand along eastern Lake Ontario was shaped in various ways. Some of the sand was produced by waves crushing larger sediments against each other. Waves breaking shells of zebra and quagga mussels (both are obtrusive species in Lake Ontario) made some sand. When it was eroded from the uplands, some of the sediment was already the size of sand. Sand is one of the unique ecological features of the eastern shore of Lake Ontario. It is one of the essential parts of hill advancement. Sand also provides a setting for recreational activities like bird watching and photography. When glaciers moved north into Canada and Greenland, thousands of years ago, they deposited the sand that lines the eastern shore of Lake Ontario. On the beach, in a mound on the dunes, and in the shallow water, there is some sand. Our dunes and beaches do not get their sand from a new source. Assuming the sand washes or blows into the wetlands that are protected behind the hills, it very well might be lost from the rising framework for eternity. Keeping sand in the shallow water of Lake Ontario, on beaches, or in dunes gives this special (dune) ecosystem access to this crucial resource.

Estimation of the Grain Size Range of Sediments Deposited in the Basin

Over 45% of the zone in Canadian waters contains glacial sediment, the predominant type of bottom. About 5% of the area is covered in bedrock, and the remaining half is covered in sediment from after the glaciation. Offshore, glacial lacustrine sediment and till with a veneer of lag deposits are exposed. Postglacial dregs happen in three significant stores focused On the money Pelee. Both Buffalo and Long Point Because of the greater incursion of basin deposits, particularly at Point Pelee and Long Point, the average grain size is smaller than in Lake Ontario. Sedimentation in the western bowl is dominated by silt release by the Detroit and Maumee Waterways. Littoral float is significant in fostering the sand-rich deposition on the west shore of Point Pelee, the inshore slants of Long Point, and inverse Bison. Float is prevalently towards the east yet inversions happen on the east sides of the significant Projections and the examples for the singular sub-bowls are like that for Lake Ontario.

Sediment Structures Formed

Glacial sediment makes up about 60% of the exposed bottom in the zone, making it the predominant type. Glacial material typically has poor sample recovery, and little is known about its composition or texture. Acoustic evidence suggests that it is mostly till, and underwater television surveys reveal that it is covered in a thin layer of sediment ranging from sand to boulders. This proposes that this kind of often has gone through and is going through disintegration and fixation of coarse-grained lingering stores. The bedrock is only a small part of the zone. Openings happen at the western furthermore, eastern restrictions of the bowl and represent under 10% of the zone region. One of the most well-known views of eastern Lake Ontario is provided by the expansiveness of this low-relief beach. The beach, dunes, and gently sloping foreshore all have fine to very fine-grained sand. This section of the barrier beach, which was once capped by dunes, has undergone significant modification as a result of extensive recreational use, sand mining, and exploitation carried out by private organizations and government management agencies.

Fossils Found in the Region

Gastropod fossils are normal around Lake Ontario. Certain kinds of limestone have an extremely fine grain. Limestone is a fairly common type of sedimentary rock. It is to a great extent comprised of the minerals aragonite and calcite, the two of which are precious stone kinds of calcium carbonate. When these elements precipitate from dissolved calcium-containing water, limestone is formed. This could occur through biological or non-biological mechanisms. On the other hand, biological procedures are preferred. There was once a fen nearby in the marsh. There are two kinds of evidence to suggest that a fen once existed. In the first place, this is the sort territory for an exceptionally uncommon moth, Hemileuca sp., known from just 10 regions, overall and every one of them fens. Since the 1960s, this wetland has not seen Hemileuca. Second, the site is currently swamp however it has a "misleading base" – underlain as it is by a more profound peat mat. It is reasonable to assume that the fen was flooded and that the marsh that is now in place was formed over it. The swamp is currently esteemed as an environment for an assortment of exceptional reproducing waterbirds and moving waterfowl. During the summer, waves face the beach or face the south, whereas, during the winter, they face more north. Each of these regimes produced sand bars that serve as sand reservoirs with some onshore and offshore transport but a little net movement. Sand is removed from the system as dunes accumulate and migrate, barrier bars are broken, and bay mouth bars form new inlets. Rise accumulation is logical most noteworthy during seasons of low lake level and least when it is high. Agreeable reclamation endeavors by The Nature Conservancy and New York State throughout the past. Three years have seen the establishment of two ridge walkovers and snow fencing to safeguard the transplanted and exceptionally interesting Ammophilachamplainensis (Champlain beachgrass). This grass is found just here, on a couple of sandy sea shores on Lake Champlain and at a couple of destinations along the St. Lawrence Waterway in Quebec.

Kinds of Rocks Found

At Lake Ontario, you can find the following five rocks: When people think of clastic sedimentary rocks, the majority of them immediately think of sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks contain rock fragments (clasts) from before. Enduring relaxes rock pieces, which are consequently moved to a downturn or bowl where silt is caught. When sediment is submerged deeply, crushed, and cemented, it forms sedimentary rock. Particles in these sedimentary rocks can range in size from tiny clay to massive boulders. The size of their clasts, or grains, is the source of their names. Dirt is the littlest molecule, trailed by residue and lastly sand. Grains with a diameter greater than 2 millimeters are referred to as pebbles. Shale is principally made out of dirt, siltstone is made out of minute sediment-estimated grains and sandstone is made out of little sand-sized clasts, yet the combination is made out of rocks encased in a sand or mud framework.

References

Academic Accelerator 2020, Foreland Basin, Academic Accelerator.

Berkeley 2021, The Need for Cladistics, ucmp.berkeley.edu.

Berzi, D 2021, Debris Flow - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics, www.sciencedirect.com, viewed 30 June 2023, .

Brian Frederick Windley 2018, Ediacara fauna | Definition, Biota, and Facts, Encyclopædia Britannica.

Hauptvogel, D & Sisson, V 2022, ‘Chapter 4: Sedimentary Structures’, uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub, vol. 4, no. 6, viewed 30 June 2023, .

kpanchuk 2022, ‘The Ediacaran Fauna (600-542 MY)’, pressbooks.bccampus.ca, vol. 3, no. 8, viewed 30 June 2023, .

Li, ZX 2014, ‘Supercontinent break-up: Causes and consequences’, NASA ADS, vol. 2014, no. 45, pp. T33B4655.

Murphy, JB & Nance, RD 2013, ‘Speculations on the mechanisms for the formation and breakup of supercontinents’, Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 185–194.

NAU 2022, Endosymbiosis, www2.nau.edu.

Oskin, B 2014, Why Colliding Continents Don’t Choke, NBC News, viewed 30 June 2023, .

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